Domestic violence (also known as domestic abuse, spousal abuse, or intimate partner violence) occurs when a family member, partner or ex-partner attempts to physically or psychologically dominate another. Domestic violence often refers to violence between spouses, or spousal abuse but can also include cohabitants and non-married intimate partners. Domestic violence occurs in all cultures; people of all races, ethnicities, religions, sexes and classes can be perpetrators of domestic violence. Domestic violence is perpetrated by both men and women. Domestic violence has many forms, including physical violence, sexual abuse , emotional abuse , intimidation , economic deprivation, and threats of violence. Violence can be criminal and includes physical assault (hitting, pushing, shoving, etc.), sexual abuse (unwanted or forced sexual activity), and stalking. Although emotional, psychological and financial abuse are not criminal behaviors, they are forms of abuse and can lead to criminal violence. There are a number of dimensions including: An important componet of domestic violence, often ignored is the realm of passive abuse, leading to violence.[1] Passive abuse is covert, subtle and veiled. This includes victimization, procrastination, forgetfulness, ambiguity, neglect, spiritual and intellectual abuse. Forms of abuse Domestic violence can take the form of physical violence, including direct physical violence ranging from unwanted physical contact to rape and murder . Indirect physical violence may include destruction of objects, striking or throwing objects near the victim, or harm to pets. In addition to physical violence, spousal abuse often includes mental or emotional abuse, including verbal threats of physical violence to the victim, the self, or others including children, ranging from explicit, detailed and impending to implicit and vague as to both content and time frame, and verbal violence, including threats, insults , put-downs, and attacks. Nonverbal threats may include gestures , facial expressions , and body postures . Psychological abuse may also involve economic and/or social control, such as controlling the victim's money and other economic resources, preventing the victim from seeing friends and relatives, actively sabotaging the victim's social relationships, and isolating the victim from social contacts. Physical violence Physical violence is the intentional use of physical force with the potential for causing injury, harm, disability, or death, for example, hitting, shoving, biting, restraint, kicking, or use of a weapon. Sexual violence Sexual violence is divided into three categories:
  1. use of physical force to compel a person to engage in a sexual act against his or her will, whether or not the act is completed;
  2. attempted or completed sex act involving a person who is unable to understand the nature or condition of the act, unable to decline participation, or unable to communicate unwillingness to engage in the sexual act, e.g., because of underage immaturity, illness, disability, or the influence of alcohol or other drugs, or because of intimidation or pressure; and
  3. abusive sexual contact.
Emotional abuse Emotional abuse (also called psychological abuse or mental abuse) can include humiliating the victim privately or publicly, controlling what the victim can and cannot do, withholding information from the victim, deliberately doing something to make the victim feel diminished or embarrassed, isolating the victim from friends and family, implicitly blackmailing the victim by harming others when the victim expresses independence or happiness, or denying the victim access to money or other basic resources and necessities. Women who are being emotionally abused often feel as if they do not own themselves; rather, they may feel that their significant other has nearly total control over them. Women undergoing emotional abuse often suffer from depression , which puts them at increased risk for suicide , eating disorders , and drug examined 219 studies on intimate partner violence and concluded that "women are as physically aggressive, or more aggressive, than men in their relationships with their spouses or male partners." Domestic violence against women in lesbian relationships is about as common as domestic violence against women in heterosexual relationships. Types The form and characteristics of domestic violence and abuse may vary in other ways. Michael P. Johnson (1995, 2006b) argues for three major types of intimate partner violence. The typology is supported by subsequent research and evaluation by Johnson and his colleagues, as well as independent researchers. Distinctions need to be made regarding types of violence, motives of perpetrators, and the social and cultural context. Violence by a man against his wife or intimate partner is often done as a way for men to control "their woman".Other types of intimate partner violence also occur, including violence between gay and lesbian couples, and by women against their male partners. Distinctions are not based on single incidents, but rather on patterns across numerous incidents and motives of the perpetrator. Types of violence identified by Johnson: Another type is situational couple violence, which arises out of conflicts that escalate to arguments and then to violence. It is not connected to a general pattern of control. Although it occurs less frequently in relationships and is less serious than intimate terrorism, in some cases it can be frequent and/or quite serious, even life-threatening. This is probably the most common type of intimate partner violence and dominates general surveys, student samples, and even marriage counseling samples. Types of male batterers identified by Holtzworth-Munroe and Stuart (1994) include "family-only", which primarily fall into the CCV type, who are generally less violent and less likely to perpetrate psychological and sexual abuse. IT batterers include two types: "Generally-violent-antisocial" and "dysphoric-borderline". The first type includes men with general psychopathic and violent tendencies. The second type are men who are emotionally dependent on the relationship. Support for this typology has been found in subsequent evaluations. Others, such as the CDC , divide domestic violence into two types: reciprocal violence, in which both partners are violent, and non-reciprocal violence, in which one partner is violent. Theories There are many different theories as to the causes of domestic violence. These include psychological theories that consider personality traits and mental characteristics of the offender, as well as social theories which consider external factors in the offender's environment, such as family structure, stress, social learning. As with many phenomena regarding human experience, no single approach appears to cover all cases. Psychological Psychological theories focus on personality traits and mental characteristics of the offender. Personality traits include sudden bursts of anger, poor impulse control, and poor self esteem. Various theories suggest that psychopathology and other personality disorders are factors, and that abuse experienced as a child leads some people to be more violent as adults. Studies have found high incidence of psychopathy among abusers. Dutton has suggested a psychological profile of men who abuse their wives, arguing that they have borderline personalities (between psychotics and neurotics ), which are developed early in life. Gelles suggests that psychological theories are limited, and points out that other researchers have found that only 10% (or less) fit this psychological profile. He argues that social factors are important, while personality traits, mental illness, or psychopathy are lesser factoflict, and when conflict does arise, are less likely to resort to violence. If one spouse desires control and power in the relationship, the spouse may resort to abuse. This may include coercion and threats, intimidation, emotional abuse, economic abuse, isolation, making light of the situation and blaming the spouse, using children (threatening to take them away), and behaving as "master of the castle". Social stress Stress may be increased when a person is living in a family situation, with increased pressures. Social stresses, due to inadequate finances or other such problems in a family may further increase tensions. Violence is not always caused by stress, but may be one way that some (but not all) people respond to stress. Families and couples in poverty may be more likely to experience domestic violence, due to increased stress and conflicts about finances and other aspects. Some speculate that poverty may hinder a man's ability to live up to his idea of "successful manhood", thus he fears losing honor and respect. Theory suggests that when he is unable to economically support his wife, and maintain control, he may turn to misogyny , substance abuse , and crime as ways to express masculinity. Social learning theory Social learning theory suggests that people learn from observing and modeling after others' behavior. With positive reinforcement, the behavior continues. If one observes violent behavior, one is more likely to imitate it. If there are no negative consequences (e.g. victim accepts the violence, with submission), then the behavior will likely continue. Often, violence is transmitted from generation to generation in a cyclical manner. Power and control In some relationships, violence arises out of a perceived need for power and control, a form of bullying and social learning of abuse. Abusers' efforts to dominate their partners have been attributed to low self-esteem or feelings of inadequacy, unresolved childhood conflicts, the stress of poverty, hostility and resentment toward women (misogyny ), hostility and resentment toward men (misandry ), personality disorders, genetic tendencies and sociocultural influences, among other possible causative factors. Most authorities seem to agree that abusive personalities result from a combination of several factors, to varying degrees. A causalist view of domestic violence is that it is a strategy to gain or maintain power and control over the victim. This view is in alignment with Bancroft's "cost-benefit" theory that abuse rewards the perpetrator in ways other than, or in addition to, simply exercising power over his or her target(s). He cites evidence in support of his argument that, in most cases, abusers are quite capable of exercising control over themselves, but choose not to do so for various reasons. An alternative view is that abuse arises from powerlessness and externalizing /projecting this and attempting to exercise control of the victim. It is an attempt to 'gain or maintain power and control over the victim' but even in achieving this it cannot resolve the powerlessness driving it. Such behaviours have addictive aspects leading to a cycle of abuse or violence . Mutual cycles develop when each party attempts to resolve their own powerlessness in attempting to assert control. Questions of power and control are integral to the widely utilized Duluth Domestic Abuse Intervention Project . They developed "Power and Control Wheel" to illustrate this: it has power and control at the center, surrounded by spokes (techniques used), the titles of which include: The model attempts to address abuse by one-sidedly challenging the misuse of power by the 'perpetrator'. Critics of this model suggest that the one-sided focus is problematic as resolution can only be achieved when all participants acknowledge their responsibilities, and identify and respect mutual purpose.[80] The power wheel model is not intended to assign personal responsibility, enhance respect for mutual purpose or assist victims and violence#cite_note-83#cite_note-83) The contribution of these reactions is one possible component. EQUALITY WHEEL Trust and equality are hallmarks of a good relationship. You should be able to feel safe and loved in your relationship. the equality wheel, demonstrates what a healthy relationship looks like. Equality Wheel created and produced by Domestic Abuse Intervention Project 202 East Superior Street / Duluth, MN 55302 / (218) 722-7281 Non-Threatening Behavior You and your partner talk and act in a way that makes you both feel comfortable expressing your opinions and making your own decisions. You feel safe around each other. Negotiation and Fairness You and your partner have equal decision-making power in the relationship and are willing to compromise. Rules and agreements are made together and apply equally to both of you. Sexual Safety You and your partner are able to say no to any sexual behavior you are not comfortable with. You honor and respect each other's sexual decisions, communicate about sex, and practice safe sex if you are sexually active. Connections With Others You and your partner maintain friendships and family relationships, enjoy activities outside of your relationship and make your own decisions about where you go, what you do and whom you hang out with. Responsible Parenting You and your partner communicate and make responsible decisions about pregnancy. If you are parenting, you share responsibilities and are positive, non-violent role models for children. Honesty and Accountability You and your partner accept responsibility for your own actions. You acknowledge mistakes and admit when you are wrong and communicate openly and truthfully. You trust your partner, and you are being trustworthy yourself. Trust and Support You and your partner encourage each other's goals, talents and strengths. You value each other's feelings and opinions, even if they are different from your own. You respect each other's privacy and listen non-judgmentally. Financial/Economic Independence You and your partner control your own money and negotiate about shared expenses. When gifts are given, they are given freely and without expectation for anything in return. There are no demands for money or material items. Cycle of violence Frequently, domestic violence is used to describe specific violent and overtly abusive incidents, and legal definitions will tend to take this perspective. However, when violent and abusive behaviours happen within a relationship, the effects of those behaviours continue after these overt incidents are over. Advocates and counsellors will refer to domestic violence as a pattern of behaviours, including those listed above. Lenore Walker presented the model of a Cycle of Violence which consists of three basic phases: Honeymoon Phase Characterized by affection, apology, and apparent end of violence. During this stage the batterer feels overwhelming feelings of remorse and sadness. Some batterers walk away from the situation, while others shower their victims with love and affection. Tension Building Phase Characterized by poor communication, tension, fear of causing outbursts. During this stage the victims try to calm the batterer down, to avoid any major violent confrontations. Acting-out Phase Characterized by outbursts of violent, abusive incidents. During this stage the batterer attempts to dominate his/her partner(victim), with the use of domestic violence. Although it is easy to see the outbursts of the Acting-out Phase as abuse, even the more pleasant behaviors of the Honeymoon Phase serve to perpetuate the abuse. See also the cycle of abuse article. Many domestic violence advocates believe that the cycle of violence theory is limited and does not reflect the realities of manwill need to). Safety in Explosive Incidents
  • Try to go to a room or area where there is an exit. Avoid rooms with potential weapons or no outside exits (e.g. garages, kitchens, bathrooms).
  • Try to stay in a room with a phone or hide your cell phone in a safe place and have it programmed for 911. Call a friend or neighbor if you can.
  • Visualize your escape route. If a safe moment arises, be prepared to use it.
  • Use your code word or special signal to tell your children or neighbors to call 911.
  • Trust your instincts and judgment to safely decide what to do next. Safety When Leaving
  • Open a savings account in your own name at a different bank. Consider direct deposit of your paycheck or benefit check.
  • Have your abuser's social security number and license plate number with you to give to the police.
  • Bring medications, hearing aids, glasses, etc.
  • Keep the Iowa Domestic Violence Hotline number with you at all times: 1-800-942-0333.
  • Review your safety plan regularly. Safety When No Longer Living with Your Abuser
  • Change the locks on your doors as soon as possible. If possible, buy additional locks to secure your windows. Consider more outside lighting.
  • If you have children or other dependents living with you, discuss a safety plan for when you are not there. Inform their school, daycare, etc. about who has permission to pick them up. Give copies of your protection order to anyone with whom your children or dependents may be staying.
  • Inform neighbors and your landlord that your abuser no longer-0333 TYPES OF RAPE Rape can be categorized in different ways: for example, by reference to the situation in which it occurs, by the identity or characteristics of the victim, and/or by the identity or characteristics of the perpetrator. These categories are referred to as types of rape. Acquaintance rape / Date rape These are non-domestic rapes committed by someone who knows the victim. They include rapes of co-workers, schoolmates, friends, and other acquaintances, including "date rapes." The vast majority of rapes are committed by people who already know the victim. Spousal rape Also known as spouse, marital rape, wife rape, husband rape, partner rape or intimate partner sexual assault (IPSA), is rape between a married or de facto couple. Research reveals that victims of marital/partner rape suffer longer lasting trauma than victims of stranger rape. College campus rape Some studies indicate a particular problem with rape on college campuses. According to a 1992 study, one out of twelve college aged men and women committed rape. The Department of Justice study also found that in "about half of the incidents categorized as completed rapes, the women or men did not consider the incident to be a rape." According to the Journal of Counseling and Development, women aged 16?24 are at the highest risk of sexual assault. One study has concluded that as many as one in four college aged females and one in ten college aged males has been a victim of either rape or attempted rape. Gang rape Gang rape, or mass rape, occurs when a group of people participate in the rape of a single victim. Rape involving at least two or more penetrators is widely reported to occur in many parts of the world. Systematic information on the extent of the problem, however, is scant. One study showed that offenders and victims in gang rape incidents were younger with a higher possibility of being unemployed. Gang rapes involved more alcohol and drug involvement, night attacks and severe sexual assault outcomes and less victim resistance and fewer weapons than individual rapes. Another study found that group sexual assaults were more violent and had greater resistance from the victim than individual sexual assaults and that victims of group sexual assaults were more likely to seek crisis and police services, to contemplate suicide and seek therapy than those involved in individual assaults. The two groups were about the same in the amount of drug use and drinking during the assault. In Johannesburg , South Africa , surveillance studies of women attending medico-legal clinics following a rape found that one-third of the cases had been gang rapes. National data on rape and sexual assault in the United States reveal that about 1 out of 10 sexual assaults involve multiple perpetrators. Most of these assaults are committed by people unknown to their victims. This pattern, though, differs from that in South Africa where boyfriends are often involved in gang rapes. The word tournante is a French adjective meaning "turning" and is used as a slang term to mean a gang rape. According to the testimony of numerous victims, young Muslim women who stray from traditional conduct in the immigrant neighborhoods, such as behaving and dressing like a westerner, or wanting to live as Europeans or refusing to wear the traditional clothing , have been targeted for tournantes. According to Samira Bellil in a CNN interview, there was a trial in Lille regarding a 13-year-old girl who had allegedly been gang-raped by 80 men. War rape During war, rape is often used as means of psychological warfare MOTIVES FOR RAPE There is no single theory that conclusively explains the motivation for rape ; the motives of rapists can be multi-factorial and are the subject of debate. Researchers have attempted to explain the motivation of a rapist in terms of anger , power) , sadism , and sexual gratification. Some argue that the capacity or propensity to rape is adaptive in the sense that historically, men with genes which increase their propensity to rape may have had more children, furthering the spread of those genes Anger rape Anger rape is characterized by physical brutality with the rapist using far more force than is necessary to subdue the victim. The experience for the offender is one that is of conscious anger and rage. He/she expresses his/her rage both physically and verbally upon the victim during the attack. His/her aim is to hurt and debase his/her victim. He/she often shows his/her contempt through abusive and profane language. The anger rapist considers rape the ultimate offense he/she can commit against the victim. Such a rapist strikes sporadically and infrequentlyes torture and restraint. Sometimes it can take on ritualistic or other bizarre qualities. The victim's injuries will be primarily focused on the sexual areas of his/her body; there may be mutilation of these areas. The rapist may use some type of instrument or foreign object to penetrate his victim. The sadistic rapist's assaults are deliberate, calculated and preplanned. They will often wear a disguise or will blindfold his/her victim. Prostitutes or other people whom they perceives to be "promiscuous" are often the sadistic rapist's targets. The victims of a sadistic rapist may not survive the attack. For some offenders, the ultimate satisfaction is gained from murdering the victim. Sexual gratification Though anger and power are believed to be the primary motivation for most rapes, Richard Felson and James Tedeschi contend that sadism is a significant motivation to rapists. Felson believes that rape is an aggressive form of sexual coercion and the goal of rape is sexual satisfaction rather than power. Most rapists do not have a preference for rape over consensual sex. In one study, rapists evaluated with penile plethysmography demonstrated more arousal to forced sex and less discrimination between forced and consensual sex than non-rapist control subjects, though both groups responded more strongly to consensual sex scenarios US rape statistics Though people tend to assume otherwise, rape by a stranger is by far the least common form of rape. Rape of women by men, by perpetrator Perpetrator Frequency Steady dating partner 21.6% Casual friend 16.5% Ex-boyfriend 12.2% Acquaintance 10.8% Close friend 10.1% Casual date 10.1% Husband 7.2% Stranger 2% Drug, especially alcohol, use is frequently involved in rape. In 47% of rapes, both the victim and the perpetrator had been drinking. In 17%, only the perpetrator had been. 7% of the time, only the victim had been drinking. Rapes where neither the victim nor the perpetrator had been drinking were 29% of all rapes Contrary to widespread belief, rape outdoors is rare. Over two thirds of all rapes occur in someone's home. 30.9% occur in the perpetrators' homes, 26.6% in the victims' homes and 10.1% in homes shared by the victim and perpetrator. 7.2% occur at parties, 7.2% in vehicles, 3.6% outdoors and 2.2% in bars Most rape research and reporting to date has been limited to male-female forms of rape. Research on male-male and female-male is beginning to be done. However, almost no research has been done on female-female rape, though women can be charged with rape Effects on victims Victims of rape can be severely traumatized by the assault and may have difficulty functioning as well as they had been used to prior to the assault, with disruption of concentration, sleeping patterns and eating habits, for example. They may feel jumpy or be on edge. After being raped it is common for the victim to experience Acute Stress Disorder , including symptoms similar to those of posttraumatic stress disorder , such as intense, sometimes unpredictable, emotions, and they may find it hard to deal with their memories of the event. In the months immediately following the assault these problems may be severe and very upsetting and may prevent the victim from revealing their ordeal to friends or family , or seeking police or medical assistance. Additional symptoms of Acute Stress Disorder include For one-third to one-half of the victims, these symptoms continue beyond the first few months and meet the conditions for the diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder . (See also Significant Emotional Event.) In general, rape and sexual assault are among the most common causes of PTSD in women.
  • info coutesy of Fernan David Vargas